Religious Dissent: Quakers
Growth of Quakerism
Quakers, or the Religious Society of Friends, became established in England during the 1650s, one of several religious sects which formed in this period of civil war, religious fervour and political upheaval. Proselytisers spread its wings and it grew as movement in Scotland, Holland, Germany and colonial America as well as in England.
Quakers in Scotland
During the reign of Charles II, Quakers in Scotland faced legal persecution similar to the Covenanters, as they too were targeted under laws banning conventicles (unauthorised religious gatherings). However, their beliefs set them apart from both the established Church of Scotland and the Covenanters. They rejected formal church structures and hierarchy, viewing religious authority as coming directly from God rather than ministers or scripture. Instead of seeing the Bible as the ultimate law, they treated it as a spiritual guide, emphasising personal revelation and the ‘Inner Light’, the belief that God’s presence could be directly experienced by individuals.
Their refusal to conform to social conventions, such as removing their hats in court (a gesture they believed was due only to God), and their opposition to paying church taxes (teinds in Scotland) made them unpopular. Their unorthodox views and practices led to deep hostility from both religious and civic authorities.
Quaker experience in northeast Scotland
Most Quakers in Scotland were concentrated in the northeast, particularly around Aberdeen, where they formed a tightly knit community. Persecution strengthened their cohesion; nearly every adult male Quaker in Aberdeen was imprisoned at some point during the 1670s in the city’s Tolbooth. Families further reinforced these ties through intermarriage, and Quakers relied on each other for business and legal matters, fostering a strong economic network.
Although direct government action against Quakers slowed after the Duke of York intervened in 1679, their future remained uncertain. In 1683, George Haliburton, Bishop of Aberdeen, petitioned the Privy Council to prevent Quakers from establishing burial grounds, meeting houses, and schools, accusing them of spreading “godless and heretical opinions”. While they were not persecuted as severely as the Covenanters — largely because they posed no military threat — their social and economic exclusion continued.
Quakers as an international community
Quakers were a community that crossed national boundaries and saw “the world as their parish”. Between 1655 and 1662, around 60 English missionaries crossed the Atlantic to preach in the American colonies. George Fox, the early Quaker leader, himself made the journey in 1671, sailing first to Barbados before traveling to the Chesapeake and New York. He envisioned a colony where Quakers could live free from persecution, and his influence helped shape later Quaker settlements in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.